A Nigerian Lab-Scientist and HIV/AIDS cure claimant Prince (Dr.) Ayodele Adeleye has reacted to the recent discovery of HIV/AIDS vaccine by a white man, stressing that the 33 percent vaccine discovered was far below what they have discovered in Nigeria.

Dr. Adeleye who made the ascertain in an interview said even though he has 90 percent cure for the dreaded disease, the World Health Organization (WHO) was yet to recognize him.

According to him, the 33% vaccine means that, out of hundred people treated or inoculated, only 33 will produce vaccine in their body while the remaining 67 would be unsuccessful.

He said “now what I have, killed the virus inside the body and the dead virus now used as anti-body to produce anti-virus that would serve as vaccine for life time.”

Nigeria government, he averred refused to believe that the cure could come from the country because they are black men, but believe in anything that comes from the western world especially U.S.A and Britain.

Prince Adeleye expressed the hope that with time the WHO and American who declared the recent cure, may continue, and see what they also have inside as Black men in African.

While alleging that he has cure for HIV/AIDS that now takes only four (4) hours treatment, Prince Ayodele who noted that his HIV cure counterparts in South Africa and other black country have been making known their claims in the media but were given deaf ears by WHO and other relevant authorities/Agents.

However Adeleye said, in South Africa, where some claimants tag the virus to folk-virus and used it to boost immunity is beyond his imagination.

He however agreed that folk virus is stable and can produce anti-body to produce anti-virus “but to tag HIV/AIDS to it, outside body is something that is beyond my knowledge.”

On the recent discovery in western world, Adeleye said he could not say much on the therapy being used, as the claimant did not disclosed the content of drug used.

On the contrary, unauthorized information provided that security agent is arresting a number of those claiming to have discovered cure for HIV/AIDS in Nigeria.

Reasons for the arrest was not made public, findings however revealed that major donor agency that supply Anti-retroviral drug have began to withdraw due to the alleged claims for HIV cure found in Nigeria.

Introduction

It is because of the complex nature of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that it is able to successfully avoid the host immune system and subsequently destroy it. The fact that after 30 years of research there is still no vaccine for this virus is a clear indicator of how well evolved HIV is. How do you prime an immune system which, even when competent, seems unable to control HIV infection? The first logical approach taken in the development of a vaccine to HIV used methods which have already proven successful in the vaccination of measles, mumps, poliomyelitis, rubella, typhoid and yellow fever. These traditional vaccines include live attenuated virus, inactivated viruses and recombinant protein vaccines (Letvin, 2004). None of these approaches have turned out to be safe or efficient in protection against HIV. This has led to the development of new vaccine strategies which may prove useful in the struggle to find a vaccine for this seemingly unstoppable epidemic.

HIV

In order to create a vaccine it is important to understand the biology of a virus. HIV belongs to the genus lentivirus in the family Retroviridae. So far two types of the virus have been identified: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent of the two subtypes and is responsible for most of the cases of AIDS throughout the world. HIV-2 is less virulent and is mostly responsible for AIDS in Western Africa (Montagnier, 2010). HIV-1 is thought to be phylogenetically related to SIVcpz, a commensal virus in chimpanzees, and most likely originated from a single transmission event between humans and chimpanzees (Gao et al, 1999).

The virus is transmitted both venerually and hematoeneously and can be transmitted as a cell free or a cell associated virus (Letvin, 2002). The replication of HIV relies on an active reverse transcriptase which often produces mutant virons, resulting in a genetically heterogeneous population of virons with in one infected individual (Girard et al, 2006 and Letvin, 2002).   The transcription error of this reverse transcriptase may reach about 1 in 100,000 nucleotides which is far greater than that of cellular DNA polymerases which have an error of about 1 in 1,000,000,000 nucleotides (Montagnier, 2010). The genome of the HIV virus is a single stranded RNA molecule about 9,500 nucleotides long (Goldstein, 1996). Given that as may as a billion virons can be produced in one day shows the incredible genetic variability in a population of virons contained with in one infected individual. Remarkably this variability can be further enhanced in some individuals, particularly in Africa, by a secondary infection of a different HIV subtype creating a recombinant of two HIV subtypes. These new recombinants are known as a mosaic virus (Montagnier, 2010). These mosaic viruses have a greater selective advantage over individual HIV subtypes which facilitates their successful transmission into the surrounding population.

The main target of HIV is CD4+ T cells and infection of CD4+ T cells by HIV results in the depletion of CD4+ T cells and leads to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The virus attaches to the CD4 receptor by the means of an envelope glycoprotein (Env). The Env is a heterodimer of the transmembrane glycoprotein (gp40) and a surface glycoprotein, (gp 120) and forms a trimer on the surface of the viral membrane commonly referred to as spikes. Gp 120 binds to the CD4 receptor on the helper T cell and this binding causes a conformational change in gp120 (Dalgleish et al, 1984 and Klatzmann et al, 1984). The conformational change exposes a co-receptor on the Env (CCR5) which is crucial in the successful binding and integration of the virus and its target cell (Jones et al, 1998). Once infection occurs it is improbable that HIV will ever be fully eliminated from an individual. Clearance of the virus is so difficult because the virus has the ability to integrate as latent proviral DNA into the genome of long lived memory CD4+ T cells creating a persistent reservoir of the virus which avoids detection by the host immune system (Funsi et al, 1999; Blankson et al, 2002; Peterlin et al, 2003).  HIV can avoid detection by the host immune response by downregulating the major histocompatability complex (MHC) class 1 and 2 molecules which allows it to evade detection by cytotoxic lymphocytes (Evans et al, 2001; O’Connor et al, 2001). The protein found to be responsible for this downregulation of MHC class 1 and 2 molecules is nef (Clements et al, 1995).

Live Attenuated Vaccines

Live attenuated vaccines involve the manipulation of a virus in order to lower its virulence but allow it to remain infectious. These live attenuated viruses provide a powerful immune stimulus whilst remaining harmless to immune competent individuals. At first this approach seemed successful when it was tested on rhesus monkeys, the popular primate model for the testing of HIV vaccine strategies, infected with SIV and SHIV. SHIV is a man made virus which expresses HIV envelopes on an SIV backbone (Letvin, 2004). Rhesus monkeys were vaccinated with SIVmac239∆3, an attenuated form of SIV missing the nef protein, and then subsequently challenged with SHIV and SIV strains (Wyand et al, 1999).  Wyand et al (1999) found that vaccination with SIVmac239∆3 was sufficient to prevent rapid CD4+ T cell decline in monkeys challenged with SHIV 89.6p, an aggressive SHIV strain (Fig 1). Although previous studies (Bogers et al, 1995; Cranage et al, 1997) had already shown that vaccination can provide protection against SHIV the strains used in these studies were less virulent forms of SHIV. These results show that vaccination does elicit some protection, although not sterilizing, and emphasized the importance of a CTL response in preventing the rapid decline in CD4+ T cells caused by SHIV infection.

The results of Wyand et al’s study suggested that live attenuated vaccines may be worth pursuing given there ability to prevent rapid CD4+ decline. However later studies using rhesus monkeys by Hofmann-Lehmann (2003) and various others have shown that adult and infant rhesus monkeys vaccinated with SIVmac239∆3 go on to develop AIDS after several years. It was even found that the attenuated strains of SIV had restored the deleted nef gene, although some restored genes were truncated (Hofmann-Lehmann, 2003). This restoration of the nef gene could explain the ability of the SIVmac239∆3 vaccine to restore or regain the ability to cause AIDS in adult rhesus monkeys. These findings called into question the safety of using live attenuated viruses as a vaccine.  However the study by Wyand et al (1999) has shown the importance of a CTL immune response to prevent a rapid decline of CD4+ T cells when infected with SHIV 89.6p.

Inactivated Virus Vaccine

Inactivated viruses have proved successful in vaccination against the influenza and polio viruses but do not seem promising as a vaccine for HIV. Inactivated viruses have been shown to provide protection against macaques infected with a SIV strain identical to the virus used to create the vaccine (Letvin 2002). However protection has proved to be neither broad nor robust in the Macaque/SIV model (Letvin, 2002). Protection has not been shown in this model when the challenge virus and vaccine virus are genetically dissimilar (Letvin, 2002). Another problem with inactivated vaccines is that an inactive virus will not carry out protein synthesis in CD4+ T cells. Thus no CTL response will be induced (Letvin, 2002). Since the genetic variation of HIV is so extreme during the course of infection it is unlikely that an inactivated virus vaccine will prove useful as a possible vaccine strategy, especially since there is no stimulus for a CTL response.

DNA Recombinant Vaccine

This method of vaccination has proved useful as an immunogen for preventing hepatitis B.  However when recombinant HIV envelope glycoproteins were used as an immunogen in the SIV/Macaque model the animals produced neutralizing antibodies but these antibodies were only successful if the challenge virus strain was the same as the envelope gylcoproteins (Levine et al, 1996). This vaccination strategy does not have the variability required to protect against a continuously mutating HIV infection.  DNA recombinant vaccination does not induce a CTL response either which is required to prevent the rapid decline of CD4+ T cells (Letvin, 2002). From these studies it is clear that traditional vaccine strategies do not prove useful in protecting individuals from HIV infection.

BNAbs

In order for antibodies to be successful in neutralizing the HIV virus they must be able to bind consistently to all virons regardless of their genetic differences. The trimeric env or trimeric spike of HIV is a very unstable and compact protein covered in a glycan shield. As explained earlier these spikes are essential to the binding of HIV to CD4+ T cells and are therefore an obvious target for neutralization by antibody binding. The spike has few conserved regions which remain intact throughout the constant variability in the replication and binding of this virus. It is these conserved regions which are most likely to be successful targets for neutralizing antibodies. BNAbs have been described already in infected individuals (Binley et al., 2008; Dhillon et al., 2007; Li et al., 2009). Of these BNAbs there are 4 specific antibodies which have already been well studied B12, 2G12, 2FS and 4E10 (Burton et al.,1994; Muster et al., 1993; Stiegler et al., 2001; Trkola et al., 1995). It has been suggested that just binding to spikes is sufficient for neutralization of the virus, regardless of where. (Zanneti et al, 2006). However there is one problem to be overcome in this approach, vaccination works by exposing the host immune system to immunogens which elicit the production of protective antibodies but in the case of BNAbs the situation is much more difficult. There are antibodies which can successfully neutralize the virus that have already been identified. The main challenge in this case is to indentify immunogens that can elicit the production of these antibodies. Successfully carrying out this process relies heavily on retrovaccinology. This process seeks to understand the interaction between a virus and antibodies to create epitopes that would act as immunogens to elicit the production of the desired BNAb. So far the structure of B12 has been determined (Binley, 2008) so now it remains to create an epitope which will bind well to B12, and use this to be able to create an epitope capable of acting as an immunogen. Another antibody that has had its structure determined is 2G12. This antibody binds to sugars in the glycan shield and if these sugars were to be identified and their orientation determined this would allow an epitope to be created which could elicit the production of the 2G12 antibody (Calarese et al, 2003). Retrovaccinology could prove useful in the development of a vaccine for HIV. However the results are still to be determined and the one problem with this approach is that it would only prove useful in neutralizing a cell free virus.

Live recombinant vaccines

These vaccines work by transferring the RNA of HIV into a less virulent virus which can replicate using this RNA and induce a HIV CTL response. One of the set backs of this approach is an existing immunity to the virus being used as a live vector. The most successful candidates for this approach are the measles virus, Sendai virus (SV) and the Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) (Girard et al, 2006). The attenuated MV strain has proved to be safe and expresses the gp160 envelope glycoprotein. This live vector has been shown to elicit the production of BNAbs in mice (Lorin et al, 2004). The VSV vector has been tested in the SHIV/ Macaque model. In this test macaques had low or undetectable virus loads for 14 months after a challenge (Rose et al, 2001). This vector has been shown to elicit the production of antibodies as well as a memory CTL response in mice (Publicover et al, 2008). The VEEV vector has also proved successful in primates inducing a potent and protective immune response (Perri et al, 2003). All of these vectors show promise as potential HIV vaccines, especially VSV and VEEV. The main goal now is to successfully show there is a potential for the vaccination of humans.

Conclusion

It is clear that traditional methods of vaccination are not useful as vaccines for HIV. However there has been significant progress in the development of new vaccines which have shown promise as potential vaccination candidates in the SHIV/Macaque model and in other small mammals. It is clear that a successful vaccine would elicit the production of BNAb and also induced a response of HIV specific CTLs. Something which the live vector VSV has been shown to be capable of. So after 30 years there may still be no vaccine but retrovirology and particularly live recombinant vaccines look promising as future prospects for the vaccination of HIV.

References

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This video discusses risks of HIV transmission through sexual behavior, using the principles of harm reduction. This is for Frontline TEACH. For more information, go to www.aidslibrary.org .
Video Rating: 4 / 5

If you want to know about Candida symptoms in men then you’ll want to read this. Candida symptoms in men can be confused with other conditions so you should always consult your doctor for a proper diagnosis. Here, you’ll discover 7 of the most common signs of male Candida, plus, the causes and your treatment options.

Here are the 7 most common candida symptoms in men…

- red / inflamed and swollen glans – serious itching – burning sensation – blister-like spots which can ‘weep’ – pain when peeing – painful sex – impotency / difficulty having sex

But there are other, less well known, candida symptoms in men; here are just a few…

- continual fatigue – muscle stiffness and soreness – stiff and sore joints – diarrhea – constipation – skin lesions – acne

But what causes the signs and symptoms of Candida?

The cause of Candida in men and women is the yeast-like fungus called Candida Albicans which occurs naturally in our bodies. Our ‘friendly’ bacteria keeps it under control so that it doesn’t usually cause any problems.

But if your good bacteria numbers are insufficient to do this effectively the Candida Albicans can overgrow, causing a Candida infection. This is also known as Yeast Infection and Candidiasis.

The triggers for this are things like diabetes, a lowered immune system, stress, antibiotics overuse, steroids overuse, poor nutrition, drug taking, medical conditions like cancer and HIV/AIDS, etc., and, although sex isn’t a ’cause’ it can ‘transfer’ the infection.

What treatment for Candida is available?

The normal treatments are drug-based medications that are topically applied to the affected area. These take the form of creams, pessaries, lotions, liquid suspensions, etc., depending on the site of the infection.

These can work well enough in eliminating the Candida symptoms, but many men and women do find that the infection can take some time to clear, or, they clear only to return once more. This is called recurring Candida or Candidiasis, or, recurring yeast infection.

It is reckoned that this happens because the drugs address the symptoms but not the root cause, and, the fungus can become resistant to the drugs. The result are horrible recurring infections that seem harder and harder to eliminate.

Are there any alternatives?

Yes, more and more men with a Candida infection (and women) are choosing totally natural home remedies that don’t have the downsides and expense of drug-based medications.

This takes the form of things like herbal remedies, dietary changes, natural supplements, and much more, including knowing what lifestyle changes might have to be made.

There are literally hundreds out there that you’ll need to investigate and try. But all your hard work will be well rewarded if you get rid of your Candida infection for good, as folks all around the world have been discovering

Is there a faster way?

Yes, why don’t you just fastrack the whole business and go straight to http://yeast-infection-men.blogspot.com where you’ll discover just how thousands of men and women around the world have successfully managed to eliminate Candida fast and permanently, some within as little as 12 hours.

www.howdini.com STD signs and symptoms – Testing and treating sexually transmitted diseases Millions of people suffer from Sexually Transmitted Diseases, or STDs, but are often too embarrassed to talk about them. Here’s frank, clear information about STDs from OB/GYN Dr. Jennifer Wu of Lenox Hill Hospital in New York. Keywords: std testing std signs stds symptoms sexually transmitted diseases
Video Rating: 4 / 5

The New England Journal of Medicine recently released the results of a ground-breaking trial of an HIV-prevention method called oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP).  Data from the trial revealed an almost 44 percent reduction of new HIV infections among participants who took the antiretroviral tablet daily to prevent HIV, compared to those who took the placebo pill.

Participants in the study included 2,499 HIV-negative gay men, transgender women, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) from Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, South Africa, Thailand and the United States; these were randomly chosen to receive the antiretroviral (ARV) drug TDF/FTC (brand name Truvada) or a placebo pill.  Regular HIV tests were administrated throughout the study. At the end of the trial, 36 participants who took Truvada had become infected, compared to 64 of the participants who took the placebo pill.

Similar trials are currently being conducted among heterosexuals in Africa and injection drug users in Thailand. Additionally, a trial of a similar ARV in gel form is currently being tested in three US cities, Pittsburgh, Boston and Birmingham, Alabama.

Global Health Progress is encouraged by the outcome of this trial, as it could lead to the prevention of HIV in developing countries and around the world. However, additional funding is needed not only to continue developing drugs like this, but to increase access to medicines around the world.  As the world of medicine continues to advance, it is the responsibility of the entire international community to facilitate access to medicines.  Success depends on all sectors working in partnership; not only to make medicines more accessible, but also to ensure continued innovation into new medicines for the treatment and prevention of all diseases.

Research-based biopharmaceutical companies help the fight against the HIV/AIDS epidemic by providing millions of doses of anti-retroviral drugs at discounted prices and, in some cases, for free to patients in developing countries. These donation programs for Least Developed Countries and sub-Saharan Africa, together with programs for lower and middle income countries, apply to more than 87 percent of all people living with HIV/AIDS worldwide.

Exactly what does HIV means? HIV indicates Human Immunodeficiency Virus. These are kind of viruses that strike cells of living organisms to be able to multiply and create new copies of them. Basically, our immune system is intended to act fast and negate the dangerous effects of particular virus. The HIV virus though differs from the others, it specifically hits the immune system. Because of such, the body is left with hardly any other system to countertop the virus. This can lead to the weakening of the immune system that could leave the entire body at risk of other diseases. If left undiscovered for about ten years or more, the HIV virus may intensify into a more harmful form recognized by many as AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. People considered to be very prone to HIV and AIDs infection are prostitutes, drug users and homosexual men.

HIV is usually found in the blood of infected people and on sexual body fluids. HIV may also be observed in the breast milk of an infected mom. By being exposed to adequate quantities of the stated body liquids, anybody can be transmitted with HIV. One way of having the condition is via having unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected man or woman. Drug users are greatly vulnerable for transmission too, many of them are infected over the sharing of contaminated needles with their acquaintances. Given the very fact that HIV is found in bodily fluids, young children are prone to transmission during pregnancy, birth as well as at breastfeeding.

Most HIV victims utilize antiretroviral drugs to take care of themselves. Antiretroviral drugs aids delay the deterioration of the immune system cells caused by the virus. More often than not, victims do get back and are able to live an extended and regular life. Nevertheless, infected people should take the medication daily throughout their lives.

How do we avoid acquiring a Human Immunodeficiency Virus? As of the moment, there are still no vaccines created to fight against HIV. There are however quite a few researches made to uncover options to avoid it. There’s actually a discovery on microbicides that is still on the trial process. Microbicides are designed for preventing HIV transfer during sex. Currently, different communities have been working hard on spreading awareness about HIV prevention. One offered prevention method is to participate in safer sex. This can be achieved by utilizing condoms each time you have sex. The right usage of condoms is also explained in the info dissemination project. Additionally, drug users are also being subjected to needle exchange programs. This program promotes correct disposal of used needles and the usage of secure and sanitized needles. However, health workers are highly at risk at their workplace because of the existence of blood. Hence, it is suggested to always make use of safety equipments just like masks and gloves.

Understanding the risks involved with having HIV is very important. Bear in mind that once you got the illness, it will permanently be in your system. The worst case situation is when it evolves into a much deadlier illness called AIDS. Yearly, 2 million lives are taken by AIDS throughout the world. Thus, it’s very important that one gets regularly tested to avoid possible complications and the transmission of the illness into other people. Among the surest process available to prevent such concerns is through undergoing an HIV test on a legitimate HIV clinic.

Find More Facts About Hiv Articles

AHF and Faithful Central Bible Church partnered to test people for free in honor of World AIDS Day. More than 600 people showed up to test. AHF brought five mobil testing units and had over 70 testing counselors available to ensure rapid tests. If you missed this event, you can find locations where AHF offers free tests at www.freehivtest.net or call AHF Public Health Department at (213) 458-5800.

Questions revolving around the meeting of human basic needs and the strategic planning of social services for effective national social development carry different notations from one social context to another. Social policy has the potential to act as a spring bold for tackling the present state of extreme poverty, national destitution and general deprivation in Zambia. But such potential needs to be supported by knowledge on social theory. Social theory is not only essential but pivotal to the process of economic and social development. In this paper the relationship between social policy and social theory has being discussed. The heart of the subject under discussion, hinges on the fact that social theory is an explanation to a social problem and social Policy is a tool that solves the problem at hand.

Social policy like most phenomena in the social world, it’s a subject to a variety of definitions and interpretations, partly due to the fact that, social reality is never perceived through the same lenses, and partly because proponents operational sing the concept come from different school of thought. Social Policy has main definitions (Latrids, 1994), and is shaped by various forces.

Social Policy is a system of interrelated principles of courses of action which improves the quality of life. Social policy can be perceived as a tool or human action to prevent and solve social problems in the society. In other ways social policy is a deliberate action adopted by the society to improve the living standards of people in the world. For example, unemployment, poverty, illiteracy, health, gender imbalances/ inequality and HIV/AIDS. In view of the stated problems above, social practitioners develop up strategies as instruments of social change.

Ndangwa Noyoo (2000), “Social policy aims to ameliorate social ills through systematic and scientific procedures. It is worth of note that, Social policy has two related characteristics, first is that, social policy does not operate in a vacuum. In view of this, social policy gives us understanding that, it’s a deliberate way of providing social services and preventing social problems in the society.” Social Policy cannot flourish in an environment where good governance is missing. A good government is an essential conduit for translating social policies into better living conditions for citizens.”

However, this is not the case with developing countries like, Zambia, social policies in Zambia is a crucial bearing in mind that this nation the nation is faced with major obstacles of poverty, scarcity of resources, deprivation of general squalor. In Zambia politicians are part of the team that have brought present misery, in that they have not pursued good governance and have not exhibited quality leadership. Furthermore, many social and economic propagated by Zambia politicians have in many instances impacted negatively on the Zambian populace. To make matters worse, Zambians hsve had to contend with a crop of politicians whose primary motive seems to resolve around self enrichment at the expense of the country social and economic development in Zambia.

Having, discussed social policy, we can now define social theory and then link the relationship between the two . Social theory is the use of theoretical frameworks to study and interpret social structures and phenomena within a particular school of thought (Harrington Austin 2005). An essential tool used by scholars in the analysis of society, social theories are interdisciplinary, drawing ideas from and contributing to such disciplines as anthropology, economics, history, human geography, literary theory, mass communications, philosophy, sociology, and theology.

The concept that social theory may supersede certain aspects of the natural sciences is called the social construction of reality. Social theory takes knowledge, the manner in which we acquire knowledge, and the institutions by which knowledge is reified and disseminated among a human collectivity to be socially constructed. In effect, the laws of nature can only be derived using social tools within a social context. According to social theory, the understanding of natural phenomena is predicated on the understanding of social phenomena, as the interpretation of natural phenomena is a social activity.

This interpretation of the natural sciences leads to some deeper epistemological questions. By questioning the methods by which we deem knowledge to be “objective,” we necessarily put into question any scientific knowledge whatsoever. Social theory does not exist in mutual exclusion to the natural sciences; one is often complementary to the other. Rather, social theory calls for natural scientists to examine their methodologies with a critical eye by situating said methodologies within a social context.

Almost all good research is guided by theory. Selecting or creating appropriate theory for use in examining an issue is thus an important skill for any researcher. Important distinctions: a theoretical orientation (or paradigm) is a worldview, the lens through which one organizes experience (i.e. thinking of human interaction in terms of power or exchange); a theory is an attempt to explain and predict behavior in particular contexts. A theoretical orientation cannot be proven or disproven.

Social theory is an explanation to the causal of problems in the society such as poverty, unemployment, child abuse, HIV/AIDS and gender based violence.  The difference between the two is in that, social policy is a tool or instrument used in solving these social problems. For example, Women and youth are among the most vulnerable groups in the Zambian society, mainly because traditions and customs to a large degree do not cater for their needs at all. National Youth Policy and National  promotes, several women and youth associations, who work towards including these groups in the decision making process and establish gender equality. Young people and women are trained in decision-making, leadership skills, human rights and advocacy and thus empowered to take charge of their lives. Many of the women and youths engage in practical skills training, helping these groups to improve their livelihood and develop economic independence. At national policy level, Young Women’s Christian Association are actively advocating for women’s rights.

The other relationship between the two is in that; social theory is a body of knowledge that facilitates social policy to be implemented in context of problem solving. The concept that social theory may supersede certain aspects of the natural sciences is called the social construction of reality.  Bell David (2008:24) notes that, “Social theory takes knowledge, the manner in which we acquire knowledge, and the institutions by which knowledge is reified and disseminated among a human collectivity to be socially constructed. In effect, the laws of nature can only be derived using social tools within a social context.” According to social theory, the understanding of natural phenomena is predicated on the understanding of social phenomena, as the interpretation of natural phenomena is a social activity. In another school of thought, Berger peter etal(1966) adds that ” Social Policy is also distinct as an academic field which focuses on the systematic evaluation of societies’ responses to social need.”

Social theory relates well with social policy in that, in that social policy requires one to have knowledge on the problem at hand, if the problem has to be sorted out. For example, poverty is one of the top most social problems that has preoccupied social workers minds in Zambia, effective and the most efficient way is not about resources needed to fight it, but rather depends on the existing social policy frame work in line with the poverty key areas in Zambia. Bergula beech (2005) writes that, “Almost all good research is guided by theory. Selecting or creating appropriate theory for use in examining an issue is thus an important skill for any researcher.”

 Important distinctions: a theoretical orientation (or paradigm) is a worldview, the lens through which one organizes experience (i.e. thinking of human interaction in terms of power or exchange); a theory is an attempt to explain and predict behavior in particular contexts. A theoretical orientation cannot be proven or disproven; a theory can. Having a theoretical orientation that sees the world in terms of power and control, I could create a theory about violent human behavior which includes specific causal statements (e.g. being the victim of physical abuse leads to psychological problems). This could lead to a hypothesis (prediction) about what I expect to see in a particular sample, e.g. “a battered child will grow up to be shy or violent.” I can then test my hypothesis by looking to see if it is consistent with data in the real world. I might, for instance, review hospital records to find children who were abused, then track them down and administer a personality test to see if they show signs of being violent or shy. The selection of an appropriate (i.e. useful) theoretical orientation within which to develop a potentially helpful theory is the bedrock of social science and in this regard is referred to as social policy (Bell, David (2008).

Conclusion

Social theory and Social Policy is not only essential but pivotal to the process of economic and social development.  Given the fore going examinations, the call for strategies that can raise the quality of lives of people in the society. It can be therefore said that social theory is an explanation to a social problem and social theory is a tool that solves the problem at hand. The two sociological concept are important in that, social worker practioners can not solve or prevent the arising of the problem, if its not well interpreted in context with the problem at hand. In another school of thought, one can know the problem area of a particular phenomenon in the society, but without policy strategies no social and economical realization of human development can be achieved.

REFERENCES

Bell, David (2008). Constructing Social Theory. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Berberoglu, Berch (2005). An Introduction to Classical and Contemporary Social Theory: A Critical Perspective, Third Edition. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Berger, Peter; Luckmann, Thomas (1966). The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Garden City NY: Anchor Books.
Harrington, Austin (2005). Modern Social Theory: An Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Latrids, (1994) Social Policy Institutional Context of Social Development, Lusaka, Multimedia Publishers, Zambia.
Ndangwa Noyoo (2000) Social Welfare in Zambia, Lusaka, Multimedia, Zambia.

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